Environment and development in coastal regions and in small islands

A Water Supply for Ponta do Ouro, Mozambique

B. Marwa, M. Jury and E. Masinga, Environmental Studies Dept, University of Zululand

Progress report to Unesco, January 2005

1. Introduction

The water supply of a community depends on how well development is planned and integrated into their lifestyle. Lack of access to water is one of the major causes behind the cycle of poverty. This research brings together data on the water quality and supply in Ponta do Ouro, of a small town in Southern Mozambique in the context of development along the east coast of Africa. Ponta do Ouro is considered to be a small but prosperous border town due to its proximity to South Africa.

Ponta do Ouro lies within the Matutuine District of the Maputo Province. Ponta's stretch of coast line is characterized by a warm tropical climate. Ponta lies within a coastal dune forest, grasslands and wetlands of varying successional stages. Its coast is a recessed bay with northward sand transport that by-pass a short stretch of coast, where the dunes are quite flat. Objectives of the study include:

• To investigate both supply and demand of water of all sectors of the community in Ponta do Ouro.
• To determine the water quality in Ponta do Ouro

Map of Ponta do Ouro

For data collection, about +-10 water samples were taken from community wells, boreholes, wetland, lake and hotel taps and other sources of water in the study area. In estimating demand and supply of water, two methods will be used.

- Indirect methods of objective data collection which include:

1. Population data
2. Climatic and hydrological data
3. Level of service
4. Total water use

- Direct interviews with individuals that will be done using questionnaires.

Target People will include:

• Hotel Manager
• Camp site Manager, B & B owners
• Community members (each household) - house residents and Informal houses

Systematic Random Sampling will be used for data collection, where every source of water and every household will have an equal chance of being selected.

2. Data Analyses

In analyzing data on water quality, the focus is on the laboratory where water quality analyses will be done. Laboratory in the department of Chemistry, department of Agriculture and department of Microbiology at the University of Zululand at Empangeni will be used for water quality analysis. The physio - chemical properties of water that will be analyzed include: pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity and Total Coliforms will be analyzed for indicator organisms.

It is estimated that less than 1% of all fresh water is available for people to use (the remainder is in accessible or locked up in ice sheets and glaciers). Globally, around 12,500 cubic kilometers (km3) of water are considered available for human use on an annual basis. This amounts to about 6,600 m3 per person/year (The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 2002).

According to the Parliamentary Office of the Science and Technology (2002), today, the quantity of water used for all purposes exceeds 3,700 km3 per year. Agriculture is the largest user, consuming almost two-thirds of all water drawn from rivers, lakes and groundwater. While irrigation has undoubtedly contributed significantly to world agricultural production, it is extremely water intensive. Since 1960, water use for crop irrigation has risen by 60-70%. Industry uses about 20% of available water, and the municipal sector uses about 10%. Population growth, urbanization and industrialization have increased the use of water in these sectors. Many of these features are not present in Ponta do Ouro. There is no agricultural irrigation and no industry.

The achievement of safe drinking water requires the active engagement of local governments in managing supply and demand strategies. Local governments have a major role to play in ensuring the adequate provision of safe drinking water. As the primary decision makers for planning human settlements, local governments determine the availability and quality of safe water. Effective local-level planning and management can lower the costs of water and sanitation infrastructure, thereby increasing the ability of local governments to provide these services. Local governments also affect water quality through local actions that lead to erosion, litter production, herbicide use, and the release of nutrients (e.g., waste or agricultural leachate) into local waterways and groundwater (UN Economic and Social Council, 2004). In Ponta do Ouro, local government barely exists.

Water quality involves a long list of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics and constituents of both surface and groundwater sources (Brooks et.al, 1997). These characteristics determine how water can be used for different purposes such as domestic, agricultural, and industrial. The quality of water deteriorates when something pollutes the water. Water pollution is defined as the presences of substance, bacteria or viruses in concentrations beyond the allowable limits (Dictionary of Environmental terms, 1974).

The supply of safe water of adequate quality is important to the development of any country because it supports public health and therefore ensures economic growth. The provision of water and sanitation services is vital for the protection and development of human resources (Devadas, 1984).

Drinking water is regulated by guidelines which establish the maximum contamination levels. Most of these levels allow a sufficient margin of safety; however, one must remember that acceptable contaminant levels vary widely among individuals and population groups. For example, high sodium, which may be harmless for many people, can be dangerous for the elderly, hypertensive, pregnant women, and people having difficulty in excreting sodium (DWAF, 1996).

Effects of Total Coliforms in Human Health

It is sometimes difficult to apply the water quality standards recognized by organizations and government in rural water supply. One of the fundamental problems is cost. You find that the rural community has never had a water supply scheme before; they depend on the water taken from a natural river or a spring (WHO, 1984). When a rural water supply system takes over to provide safe, purified water, it is difficult to meet the water quality guidelines. Since water treatment (purification) is somewhat costly. It is better for the scheme to provide the treatment they can afford. That will be better than the water from a river carried over long distances by the users often it is not water of sufficient quality standards. Therefore by applying some of the guidelines the supply system can provide water to a poor community (Rawlins, 2001).

The primary aim of drinking-water standards is the protection of public health and thus the elimination, or reduction of constituents of water that are known to be hazardous to the health of the community (Chapman, 1996).

Household water demand is the product of population and average per capita consumption. The average per capita consumption is a function of the level of water supply service available. Estimates of household water demand therefore need to consider the range of service options which may be available. Since accessibility is one of the main factors affecting water consumption, the use of water is likely to be at a minimum where supplies are taken from the standpipes or hand pumps where distances which water must be carried are excessive, or where long queues result from an excessive number of users (Hartmann, 2001)

Access to water, participation in decision-making with regards to water for productive and domestic purposes, can contribute to the well-being of poor community. Public or community participation does not mean that the public makes decisions together with the decision makers. Rather, it means that the public's views and opinions are available to decision-makers and are considered in the decision-making process (DWAF, 2003)

Community participation is essential in the planning, decision-making, and implementation stages so that a sense of ownership, responsibility and involvement is instilled in the community. Community representatives should interact with the government authorities responsible for water supply and water supply schemes, so that they agree to the planned system. The willingness of a community to and participate in the implementation and maintenance of a water supply system will ultimately depend on their involvement in the decision-making process, as well as on the perceived benefits (Rawlins, 2001)

DWAF, 2003 state clear that the objective of community participation is to establish a water supply system which is acceptable to the community and which is able to meet their stated needs in terms of water quantity, quality, reliability, access and distance to taps, cost of operation and maintenance, and ability and willingness to pay.

In Mozambique, public utilities were hamstrung by years of civil war, neglect and poor administration, which translated into destruction of assets, revenue losses, and dwindling resources. Recently, the Mozambique government has shown a commitment to water reform. For public health reasons, as well as economic ones, the government wants to establish a system for delivering better water services more equitably and reliably. Presently, Mozambique wants to resolve the economic and social dilemmas associated with its poorly managed water services. Only about 25% of Mozambique's 18 million people have direct access to safe water. In rural areas, women and children spend hours collecting water - energy and time that could otherwise be spent productively in school or at work (National Directorate of Water, 1999).

According to the National Directorate of Water, 1999, to improve the availability of water country side, the Mozambique government is running a water project which is supporting participatory, community - led activities in Inhambane Province. Non-governmental groups already active in this area, the government, and the World Bank have come up with a rural water supply strategy that will help villagers get the water supplies that they want, and to participate in the planning, provision and operation of their facility.

3. Perceptions

To estimate the demand and supply of water a prepared questionnaire was used on local community members, formal and informal houses and also on commercial or business managers, hotel, shops, and camp site (including dive camps). Thirty-four community members in different households and also eight commercial managers were interviewed.

There are 3-5 people per household. The community uses water for cooking, washing, bathing, etc. The researcher found that 88.2% of the community is getting their supply from a common (shared) source and 11.8% have individual sources. The researcher found that community members travel long distances to get water (see table below). Most of the community members are not working, and cannot afford their own supply system, so they are getting supply from shared sources school borehole, church borehole, community well, etc.

During the interview with Thomas Mere, one of the community members, he cried when asked about water supply system of the area. He said that he has to travel more than 1.5 km to reach the community well where he gets water. He indicated that the water is unsafe for drinking purposes.

The first manager that the researcher interviewed was Dinna S., the Camp site manager who commented about the water situation within the camp site. He said that the camp site is having many visitors, up to 400 visitors when fully booked during peak season and long weekends. The camp site is presently getting water supply from its borehole while previously it was from the well. The camp site uses more than 6000 liters per day during peak and long weekends. Dinna said that the water that they are using seems unsafe and the visitors are complaining about the water. Many visitors bring their own water when they come to the camp site. Dinna stated that the government wants to take over and build a hotel next to the camp site. He was worried that the water is unsafe for tourists.

The second manager that the researcher interviewed was the Hotel manager, Jerenras W. who said that the hotel is having 75 - 100 visitors during peak season and long weekends. He said that the hotel is getting its water supply from Lake Zilonto and the hotel is using about 3200 liters of water per day. He said that they are using engines and underground pipes to abstract water from the lake and the water supply is adequate.

Sara M., one of the dive camp managers expressing her concerns said "it is very important that the quality of water in the camp, and Ponta do Ouro is improved to be able to cope with the amount of Tourists visiting here". Sara's dive camp is getting supply from the Camp site borehole and they are using more than 1000 liters per day. The water is unsafe and nor clean, said Sara.

4. Water Quality

To have knowledge on water quality laboratory analysis was done, where water samples were collected from different sources that were mentioned. Physio-chemical analysis and microbiological analysis were performed in different laboratories. Values for Ca, K, Na, Mg, TDS, pH, EC, Turbidity, Total Hardness, and Total Coliforms were obtained. From two different samples that were taken on September 2004, Sample A and Sample B, where both samples were taken in the same place at the same time. Physio - chemical analysis were done using Sample A, while microbiological analysis were done using both Sample A and Sample B.

Table showing Total Coliforms values in CFU per 100 ml

The table shows that there is contamination in many sources of water in Ponta do Ouro and indicate poor quality for drinking water. For bacteria, drinking water were compared using South African Water drinking standards which is 5 CFU/100 ml.

These results suggest that people in this area are vulnerable to water related diseases. The respondents reported in questionnaires that they are experiencing diseases after using water. Some of the diseases include: stomach ache, headache, skin rash, and others.

Graph showing Total Coliforms in different points

The study samples show a high amount of calcium above the standard. The water having > 16 mg/l has no health effects but there possible corrosive effects. So, water in Ponta do Ouro may have scaling problems.

The amount of magnesium is 46.8 mg/l in the Wetland and 34.6 mg/l in the Lake, exceeding the standard, whilst all other points have low magnesium with 23.7 mg/l in Camp Albu, 21.0 mg/l in community well, 9.6 mg/l near the school, 7.4 mg/l in Motel de Mar, 21.5 mg/l in the Dive camp. People using water from the Wetland and the Lake may have scaling problems and diarrhea.

The amount of Sodium in all points is below the standard (100 mg/l) with 63.8 mg/l in Dive Camp, 58.0 mg/l in Camp Albu, 33.5 mg/l in Wetland, 29.3 mg/l in school, 27.4 mg/l in Lake Zilonde, 24.3 mg/l in community, and 23.7 mg/l in Motel de Mar. Sodium may have aesthetic and health effects if the amount is more than 100 mg/l. All water sources in Ponta do Ouro have no health effect of sodium.

The expected amount of Potassium in fresh water is from 2 - 5 mg/l . The amount of Potassium in all water points in Ponta do Ouro is within or slightly above the expected level, with 4.9 mg/l in Camp Albu, 6.4 in Community Well, 7.8 mg/l in the Wetland, 4.1 mg/l in School, 3.8 mg/l in Motel de Mar, 5.2 mg/l in the Lake, 5.6 mg/l in the Dive Camp.

Graph showing Metals at different Points in milligrams per liter (mg/l)

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is a measure of salinity. The EC for the wetland is 100 mS/m, and is above the standard (70 mS/m),whlst the Camp Albution piont is having 64 mS/m and therefore a slightly salty taste. Similarly, the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the wetland is 600 mg/l, above the standard (450 mg/l). Amount of TDS in Camp Albu is also high, 416 mg/l but below the standard. TDS amount in the community well is 338 mg/l, Camp a. School is 117 mg/l, Motel de Mar is 169 mg/l, Lake Zilonto is 162 mg/l, and Dive Camp with 221 mg/l. The effects (both heath and aesthetic) for TDS and EC are similar.

5. Water Supply

Population, Evaporation, and Rainfall are important environmental factors considered in assessing the supply of water in Ponta do Ouro. The population of the area is about 10 000 people. The Evaporation and Rainfall data is presented in the table below.

Monthly Mean Evaporation & Rainfall Data (67 - 99)

Using the above data, we are able to estimate the yield from Lake Zilonto, where the hotel has its water supply. The lake is having a depth of about 2 meters, a length of 1500 meters, and a width of 750 meters. The inflow of the lake is rainfall and groundwater. The average groundwater yield for Ponta's is greater than 3 liters per second. So, the volume of the lake is 2* 106 m3 with the yield of 9 * 107 annually.

6. Synthesis

Ponta do Ouro is a beautiful rural village with formal and informal houses and it is lying near the ocean. Life in Ponta's is good, just that the community is poor; many are not working and they are also poorly educated. Most of them who are working are employed in tourism driven by South Africa. As the community lacks any local government structures they cannot organize themselves to have a good water supply system. So, as rural community they are suffering, poor roads, no water and sanitation, no commercial banks, no hospital etc.

Community members are traveling a long distance in order to get water. Some of the community members are getting water from formal houses or boreholes, from the community church, from the school, and from the community well, and from Lake Zilonto - via pipelines. The hotel is extracting water from the lake in Ponta do Ouro because they can afford to run the former colonial town water supply system using pipelines. Some community members collect water once a day; most of them carry more than 40 liters.

The quality of water in Ponta do Ouro is adequate, but nearing the health risk threshold. One of the respondents said that water is the main problem in Ponta's. They experience diseases like stomach ache, diarrhea, and skin problems but they will continue using that water because there is nothing else available. A community member at the town market, Anamaria Inogio, collects water for a family 10. He travels more than a kilometer enough water for the entire family.

There are currently many visitors who use camp site. Visitors often bring their own water for drinking and cooking, they use camp site water for bathing and washing. According to the camp site manager, Dinna, the camp site is using a borehole; previously they were using a well. As I was in the camp site as a researcher, I noticed that the shower is getting a rusty color. Everything on the shower is getting rust and asked the person who used to be there about the rusting of showers, he said that showers were okay during the last few weeks and it's now getting rust. So, the quality of water on camp site is not good because even the color is telling something.

The hotel gets its water from Lake Zilonto. According to the Hotel manager, the hotel is supplying a few other businesses with water. The Hotel do Mar seems to have been able to monopolize the municipal water system that is intended to serve the whole community.

Lake Zilonto

Tap water at Dive camp.

The picture shows (from right) Mr. Marwa, the researcher, Dinna Saidumia, Camp site Manager, Elena Masinga (student and interpreter), and the Camp Site Security Guard during interview.

Water analysis in the Microbiology Laboratory at the University of Zululand.

7. Water Budget

Diagram representing the Lake

SUPPLY

• Evaporation = 2*106 m3
• Rainfall volume = 106 m3
• Ground water yield = 108 m3
• Volume of lake = 2*106 m3 (storage)
• Water abstraction from lake = 2*103 m3
• Estimated yield = 9*107 m3

DEMAND

• Population varies to a max. of 10 000
• Using: 10 m3 / person /yr
• Estimated demand = 105 m3

According to the information obtained from the Weather Station in Kosi Bay area, the annual evaporation volume for Ponta do Ouo is about 2* 106 m3 and the rainfall volume is about 106 m3. The rainfall is half the evaporation. The inflow consists of rainfall and groundwater. The average groundwater yield for the area is about 3 liters per second. The annual volume of water abstracted from the lake is about 2 * 106 m3. The volume of a lake which is the storage is about 2 * 106 m3 which means that the area of the lake is 1.125 * 106 m3. The groundwater seems to be the main component for the inflow to the lake with 108 m3 annually.

From the estimated demand above, it shows that a person can get at least 25 liters of water per day which is about 10 m3 per person per year. The estimated water yield for a population of 10 000 is 9 * 107 m3 which is higher than the estimated demand, 105 m3.

8. Conclusion

The augmentation of the town water supply in Ponta do Ouro needs to ensure community participation towards the longer term goal of sustainable development, not just the immediate needs of a few elite (Jury et al, 2003). A better water supply system can be a solution to improve health and to help end poverty in Ponta do Ouro.

The findings of a researcher show that Ponta do Ouro has a problem in terms of infrastructure. Most of the community members in this area have no water, no electricity, no telephones, poor sanitation, and poor roads. The school and clinic are over flowing and in poor condition. From the answers given by respondents and from the researcher's findings, local communities and visitors are experiencing diseases after using water. Development cannot take place if there are still such water related diseases because most of the economy in Ponta do Ouro is dependent on ecotourism (Morajane, 2003), other villages over the border in South Africa have potential more infrastructure although still underdeveloped for tourism and dependent on subsistence agriculture.

9. Recommendations

Lake Zilonde has sufficient volume and recharge to enable a larger water supply system using pipelines to serve the entire community. The community's needs for water could be resolved by the Hotel spinning off a small company to provide a pay-for water service. There is a need for regular assessment of water quality from all sources in Ponta do Ouro.

Local knowledge should be utilized in uplifting Ponta do Ouro. Workshops for managers and the local community should be provided by UNESCO to help get municipal management going. Without land ownership, the Mozambican trend of development will be slow. Local government structures need to be established to capture a portion of the R 20 million tourism revenue. Possibly a leasehold tax could be levied to provide revenue for local government services.

See other articles related to the UNESCO pilot project on 'Development-conservation strategies for integrated coastal management in Maputaland (South Africa, Mozambique)'

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